During the Stone Age, from ~10,000 BCE until ~800 BCE, permanent dwellings and settlements were established. These Neolithic building types were made with locally sourced materials and mimicked naturally formed landscapes. The construction methods used were simple and primitive to support nomadic lifestyles. This era also saw the introduction of non-residential building types such as funerary buildings, religious buildings, and ritual/ceremonious buildings.

The architecture of ancient Greece and Rome, is representative of this era we refer to as “Classical architecture,” from ~800 BCE until ~500 AD. This era of building types emphasized the architectural column and pediment. Greek architecture was based chiefly on the post-and-beam system, in which marble and stone construction superseded timber construction. The column, a unit that was considered to be human in scale, was used as a module for all of a classical temple’s proportions.

From ~500-600 AD, Byzantine architecture distinctly combined the basilica with a symmetrical central floor plan. Many religious structures built during this time resulted in the characteristic Byzantine Greek-Cross-Plan, with a square central mass, four arms of equal length, and a domed roof. To allow such a dome to rest above a square base, either of two devices was used: the squinch (an arch in each of the corners of a square base that transforms it into an octagon) or the pendentive. Byzantine structures featured soaring spaces and sumptuous decoration: marble columns and inlay, mosaics on the vaults, inlaid-stone pavements, and sometimes gold coffered ceilings like the one in the Hagia Sophia. This era of architectural history was transitional and transformational.

As Rome spread across Europe, from ~900-1200 AD, heavier, more massive architecture with rounded arches emerged. Churches and castles of this early Medieval period were constructed with thick walls and heavy piers. Even as the Roman Empire faded, Roman ideas reached far across Europe. Romanesque buildings had Byzantine-style domes and Gothic-like steeples. The typical floor plan is that of the Latin cross with a high altar and tower at the cross intersection. Large Romanesque buildings were made of stone and brick.

Early in the 12th century, from ~1100-1300 AD, new construction methods allowed for taller cathedrals and other large building types.. Gothic architecture became characterized by distinct elements such as pointed arches, flying buttresses, and ribbed vaulting. In addition, elaborate stained glass could take the place of walls that no longer were used to support high ceilings. Gargoyles and other sculpting enabled practical and decorative functions.

The Renaissance was a return to Classical ideas, predominantly in Italy, France, and England. During this era, architects and builders were inspired by the carefully proportioned buildings of ancient Greece and Rome, rather than the classical order of architectural elements. The work of the Renaissance masters spread across Europe, and influenced a new Neoclassical building type in the Western world that sought inspiration from the classical order.

Baroque architecture celebrated the wealth of the Catholic church and was characterized by new explorations of form, complex shapes, extravagant ornaments, opulent paintings, light and shadow, and dramatic intensity. In Italy, the Baroque style is seen in opulent and dramatic churches of irregular shapes and with extravagant ornamentation.

In the 1700s, European architects started to move on from Baroque building styles and became inspired by classical architecture during this period in which the Enlightenment occurred. Ornate Baroque and Rococo styles fell out of favor as architects for a growing middle class reacted to and rejected the opulence of the ruling class. French and American revolutions returned design to Classical ideals, including equality and democracy, which are emblematic of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. These buildings were proportioned according to the classical orders with details borrowed from ancient Greece and Rome. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, the United States turned to Classic architectural ideals to construct federal buildings.

Victorian architecture refers to the diverse architectural styles prevalent during Queen Victoria's reign (1837-1901). It is characterized by ornate detailing, eclectic influences, and a revivalist approach. Victorian buildings feature steep roofs, decorative elements, and a mix of Greek Revival, Gothic Revival, Second Empire, Queen Anne, and other styles.

Beaux-Arts architecture came out of the Neoclassical movement that is characterized by order, symmetry, formal design, and grandiosity. However, Beaux-Arts architecture has a higher propensity for opulence and elaborate ornamentation. Beaux-Arts buildings referred to classic Greek and Roman architecture while making use of contemporary materials such as iron and glass. Although this style emerged in France, its sculptural ornamentation influenced American architects. The École des Beaux-Arts, one of the most influential art schools in France, taught architecture in the Beaux-Arts style.

Art Nouveau was an art and architectural style that referred to the organic features in nature. In architecture, this manifested itself in decorative elements that employed curves and sinuous lines inspired by plants and animals.

Art Deco architecture embraced contemporary construction methods with ancient forms, predominantly referring to the architectural forms of ancient Egypt. Art Deco buildings have many of these features: cubic forms, terraced pyramid shapes with each story smaller than the one below it, complex groupings of rectangles/trapezoids, and long bands of color. By the 1930s, Art Deco evolved to become more streamlined, emphasizing sleek, curving forms and long horizontal lines.

'Less is more,' came out of this era. Modern architecture began not only as a style, but as a methodology. Modernists emphasized function over form, which is why many modern buildings generally have little to no ornamentation, or decorative elements. Modern buildings employed prefabricated, or factory-made, parts made of glass, metal, and concrete in the construction process. This is reflected in the philosophy of this time, which rebelled against traditional design styles and sought after an architecture that appeared true to its functionality. The Bauhaus School was influential during this time, favoring linear and geometrical forms. Prominent figures of modern architecture include Walter Gropius, Mies Van Der Rohe, I.M. Pei, Le Corbusier, Philip Johnson, and Rem Koolhaas.

Brutalist architecture is a distinct architectural style that emerged in the mid-20th century, characterized by its raw, rugged, and often imposing appearance. It is defined by the prominent use of exposed concrete, emphasizing its texture and massiveness. Brutalist buildings often feature repetitive geometric shapes, sharp angles, and a sense of monumentality. This style emerged as a response to the optimism and sleekness of mid-century modernism, reflecting a desire for a more utilitarian and socially conscious architecture. While controversial and often divisive in public opinion, brutalist architecture has left an indelible mark on urban landscapes, with its bold and assertive designs often associated with governmental, institutional, and civic structures.

Postmodern architecture evolved from the modernist movement, however the principles of postmodernism largely rebel against the modernist philosophy. Postmodernists such as Michael Graves, Robert Venturi, and Denise Scott Brown, sought to repurpose the decorative ideals of classical architecture in a modern context. Many buildings built during this brief era characteristically used visual cues to suggest uniqueness. While modern architects believed that ‘less is more,’ postmodern architects followed the train of ‘less is a bore.’

This style of architecture branched off of postmodernism and encouraged an unprecedented freedom of form. Deconstructivists embraced complexity in a building rather than strictly focusing on functional concerns. The movement is characterised by fragmentation, an interest in manipulating the surface or skin of a built structure, and non-rectilinear shapes which appear to distort and dislocate elements of architecture, such as structure and envelope.

Parametricism is an architectural style based on computer technology and algorithms. The concept emerged from the digital animation techniques of the mid-1990s, but has risen in prominence in the early-21st century with the development of advanced parametric design.

byzantine architecture

Architecture Dictionary